ARTICLE OF THE WEEK: INDIA’S NUCLEAR POWER PROGRAMME

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Context

• Prime Minister Narendra Modi will witness the initiation of the core loading of India’s indigenous 500 Mwe Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR) in the nuclear complex at Kalpakkam, about 70 km south of Chennai.

Details

• PFBR marks the second stage of the three-stage nuclear power programme of the country with a “closed fuel cycle”, and the spent fuel from the first stage would be “reprocessed and used as fuel” in FBR.
• A unique feature of this sodium cooled PFBR is that it can produce more fuel than it consumes, thus helping in achieving self-reliance in fuel supply for future fast reactors

Overview of Nuclear Power in India

• Current Status:
  • India ranks nuclear power as the fifth-largest source of electricity, following coal, gas, hydroelectricity, and wind power.
  • As of November 2020, India operates 22 nuclear reactors across 8 nuclear power plants, with a total installed capacity of 7,380 MW.
  • In the fiscal year 2020–21, nuclear power contributed 3.11% of India's total power generation, producing 43 TWh out of 1,382 TWh.
• Expansion Plans:
  • India formulated a plan in October 2010 to achieve a nuclear power capacity of 63 GW by 2032.
  • Currently, 10 additional reactors are under construction, with a combined generation capacity of 8,000 MW.
• Challenges and Protests:
  • Following the 2011 Fukushima nuclear disaster, anti-nuclear protests have arisen at proposed nuclear power plant sites.
  • Notable protests have occurred at the Jaitapur Nuclear Power Project in Maharashtra, the Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tamil Nadu, and the proposed Haripur Nuclear Power Plant in West Bengal.
  • A Public Interest Litigation (PIL) has been filed against the government's civil nuclear programme in the Supreme Court.
• Capacity Factors:
  • Nuclear power in India has faced challenges with low capacity factors historically.
  • As of 2021, the lifetime weighted energy availability factor of the Indian nuclear fleet stands at 66.1%, with an improvement to 74.4% in the years 2019–2021.
  • Lack of nuclear fuel availability has been cited as a primary reason for low capacity factors.
• Advances in Thorium-Based Fuels:
  • India has been focusing on thorium-based fuels as part of its three-stage nuclear power programme.
  • Efforts are underway to design and develop a prototype atomic reactor using thorium and low-enriched uranium, aiming to leverage India's substantial thorium reserves for long-term energy sustainability.

Early Research Reactor

• Apsara:
  • Apsara was India's and Asia's first nuclear reactor, located at Trombay.
  • Decision to construct Apsara was made in March 1955, primarily for training personnel and conducting research in nuclear physics and isotopes production.
  • Inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru on January 20, 1957, Apsara reached criticality on August 4, 1956.
• CIRUS:
  • Offered by Canada under the Colombo Plan, CIRUS was a 40 MW research reactor.
  • Agreement signed in April 1956, construction began later that year, and it achieved criticality in July 1960.
  • Inaugurated by Prime Minister Nehru in January 1961, CIRUS was meant for research purposes and provided training to Indian personnel.
• ZERLINA:
  • ZERLINA (Zero Energy Reactor for Lattice Investigations and New Assemblies) was India's third research reactor.
  • Construction began in 1958 at Trombay and was completed in 1961.

Beginnings of Commercial Nuclear Power

• In September 1955, discussions began in the Indian Parliament about building a commercial nuclear power station.
• Government Considerations:
  • By August 1957, the Indian government was contemplating the construction of large Atomic Power Stations for electricity generation.
  • In November 1958, the Atomic Energy Commission recommended building two nuclear power stations, each with two units capable of generating 500 MW, as part of the Third Five Year Plan (1961–1966).
• Tarapur Power Station:
  • In October 1960, India issued a tender for its first nuclear power station near Tarapur, Maharashtra, consisting of two reactors generating around 150 MW each.
  • The Tarapur plant, with reactors based on rigid safeguards, was commissioned in 1965.
• Rajasthan Atomic Power Plant (RAPP):
  • Agreement for India's first nuclear power plant, RAPP-1, was signed in 1963, followed by RAPP-2 in 1966.
  • These reactors, based in Rajasthan, contained safeguards to prevent military use.
  • RAPP-1 began operation in 1972.
• Foreign Assistance Termination:
  • Assistance from the United States and Canada ended after India's first nuclear explosion in 1974.

List of operational nuclear power sites in India

• Kakrapar Atomic Power Station (Commissioned: 1993)

• • Location: Gujarat
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Madras Atomic Power Station (Kalpakkam) (Commissioned: 1984)

• • Location: Tamil Nadu
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Narora Atomic Power Station (Commissioned: 1991)

• • Location: Uttar Pradesh
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Kaiga Nuclear Power Plant (Commissioned: 2000)

• • Location: Karnataka
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Rajasthan Atomic Power Station (Commissioned: 1973)

• • Location: Rajasthan
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Tarapur Atomic Power Station (Commissioned: 1969)

• • Location: Maharashtra
  • Operator: NPCIL
• Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant (Commissioned: 2013)
• • Location: Tamil Nadu
  • Operator: NPCIL

India's Three-Stage Nuclear Power Programme

Origin and Rationale:

• Conception by Homi Bhabha: Bhabha presented the three-stage plan for national development in November 1954, which was formally adopted by the Indian government in 1958.
• Long-Term Energy Independence: The primary objective of the programme was to secure India's long-term energy independence by utilizing its uranium and thorium reserves found in the monazite sands of coastal regions in South India.
• Thorium Focus: The ultimate focus of the programme is to enable the utilization of India's vast thorium reserves to meet the country's energy requirements.

Significance of Thorium:

• Abundance in India: India possesses one of the largest shares of global thorium reserves, estimated at about 25% of the world's known thorium reserves.
• Challenges and Advantages: While thorium is abundant, it is more challenging to use as a fuel compared to uranium due to the requirement for breeding. However, it offers long-term advantages for India's energy security.

Stage I – Pressurised Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR)

• In the first stage of India's three-stage nuclear power programme, pressurised heavy water reactors (PHWRs) are utilized.
• These reactors produce electricity while generating plutonium-239 as a by-product.

Choice of PHWRs:

• Efficient Design: PHWRs were chosen for the first stage due to their efficient reactor design in terms of uranium utilization.
• Existing Infrastructure: India's existing infrastructure in the 1960s facilitated the rapid adoption of PHWR technology.

Operation and Uranium Utilization:

• Natural Uranium Utilization: Natural uranium, which contains mostly uranium-238, is used as fuel in PHWRs.
• Plutonium Production: Uranium-238 can be converted to plutonium-239 in the reactor.
• Heavy Water Usage: Heavy water (deuterium oxide, D2O) serves as both moderator and coolant in PHWRs.

IPHWR Series:

• Development: India has developed a series of PHWRs known as the IPHWR series, derived from the original Canadian CANDU reactors.
• Capacity: The IPHWR series includes designs of 220 MWe, 540 MWe, and 700 MWe capacity reactors.

Capacity Limits and Expansion:

• Uranium Reserves: Indian uranium reserves are capable of generating a total power capacity, with a limit imposed to ensure existing plants receive a lifetime supply.
• Installed Capacity: Most of India's existing nuclear power capacity is composed of first-stage PHWRs of the IPHWR series.
• Expansion Projects: Additional PHWR units are under construction and planned, aiming to reach the total planned capacity of 10 GW.

Cost and Tariffs:

• Capital Costs: Capital costs for PHWRs are in the range of Rs. 6 to 7 crore ($1.2 to $1.4 million) per MW.
• Construction Time: Construction time has improved over time and now stands at about five years.
• Tariffs: Operating plant tariffs range from Rs. 1.75 to 2.80 per unit, depending on the reactor's life.

Future Developments:

• IPWR-900 Reactor: India is working on designing reactors based on Pressurized Water Reactor technology to supplement PHWRs, including the IPWR-900 reactor platform.

Stage II – Fast Breeder Reactor (FBR)

• In the second stage of India's three-stage nuclear power programme, fast breeder reactors (FBRs) are employed.

Fuel Composition and Operation:

• Mixed Oxide (MOX) Fuel: FBRs use a mixed oxide (MOX) fuel composed of plutonium-239 recovered from spent fuel from the first stage and natural uranium.
• Fission Process: Plutonium-239 undergoes fission to produce energy in FBRs.
• Breeding Fuel: Uranium-238 in the mixed oxide fuel transmutes to additional plutonium-239, allowing FBRs to "breed" more fuel than they consume.

Transition to Thorium:

• Once a sufficient inventory of plutonium-239 is built up, thorium can be introduced as a blanket material in the reactor.
• Thorium transmutes to uranium-233 for use in the third stage of the programme.

Capacity Growth and Forecast:

• Surplus Plutonium Utilization: Surplus plutonium bred in each FBR can be used to set up additional reactors, potentially increasing India's nuclear power capacity.
• Target Capacity: The transition to the third stage using thorium as fuel is forecasted to occur once 50 GW of nuclear power capacity is achieved.

Prototype Fast Breeder Reactor (PFBR):

• Design and Construction: The PFBR, designed by the Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research (IGCAR), is the country's first fast breeder reactor.
• Responsibility: Bharatiya Nabhikiya Vidyut Nigam Ltd (Bhavini), a public sector company under the Department of Atomic Energy (DAE), is tasked with building fast breeder reactors in India.

Energy Yield:

• FBRs offer significantly higher energy yield compared to PHWRs, with the potential to generate between 65 and 128 times more energy through multiple fuel cycles.

Stage III – Thorium Based Reactors

• Stage III of India's three-stage nuclear power programme involves the deployment of self-sustaining thorium-232–uranium-233 fuelled reactors.

Reactor Characteristics:

• Thermal Breeder Reactor: These reactors are thermal breeder reactors, capable of being refueled using naturally occurring thorium after the initial fuel charge.
• Fuel Composition: The reactor utilizes thorium-232 as the primary fuel, which transmutes to uranium-233 for energy generation.

Deployment Strategy:

• Capacity Growth: The third stage is envisaged to contribute to India's nuclear energy growth beyond 10 GW, achieved through PHWRs and FBRs.
• Timeline: Full exploitation of India's thorium reserves is projected to occur approximately 3–4 decades after the commercial operation of fast breeder reactors.

Parallel Approaches:

• Indian Accelerator Driven Systems (IADS): Unique accelerator driven systems are being developed in collaboration with US's Fermilab to harness thorium.
• Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR): AHWR is a ready-for-deployment reactor design using uranium233–thorium MOX and plutonium–thorium MOX fuel. It can generate a significant portion of its power from thorium.
• Molten Salt Reactor: The Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR) is under development, exploring the feasibility of molten salt technology for thorium utilization.

AHWR Deployment Plan:

• Design and Construction: AHWR design is ready, with construction expected to commence after site identification and regulatory clearances.
• Fuel Composition: AHWR is fueled with 20% low enriched uranium (LEU) and 80% thorium, with LEU readily available on the world market.
• Timeline: Operationalization of AHWR in India is estimated by 2020, pending regulatory approvals and construction timeline adherence.

Accelerator Driven System (ADS):

• Collaboration: India's Department of Atomic Energy collaborates with Fermilab on developing unique accelerator driven systems, deemed crucial for future energy needs.

Indian Molten Salt Breeder Reactor (IMSBR):

• Development: Studies on conceptual design of IMSBR are underway, exploring the potential of molten salt technology for thorium-based reactors.

PRACTICE QUESTION Q. The development of fast breeder reactors marks a crucial phase in India's nuclear power programme. Critically Analyse. (150 words)